Healing Minds, Building Peace: Why MHPSS Matters in Crises and Recovery

In times of violent conflict or disaster, humanitarian assistance often focuses on what is most visible: immediate life-saving aid, such as food, water, shelter, healthcare, and sanitation, alongside protection measures. Once the emergency subsides, attention turns to rebuilding homes, roads, and livelihoods. Yet what about the wounds we cannot see — the psychological ones?  Beneath the surface, countless invisible wounds remain—grief over the loss of loved ones or property, fear of recurrence, and the guilt of survival. Without addressing these wounds, humanitarian aid remains incomplete, and rebuilding societies becomes a fragile endeavour.

Evidence from Interpeace’s extensive experience, research, and interventions in both emergency and post-conflict contexts has shown that Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) is a foundation for both emergency response and long-term peacebuilding. Whether amid the chaos of crisis or during the slow reconstruction of peace, MHPSS nurtures resilience, restores dignity, and rebuilds the social fabric.

We have witnessed these transformations in contexts such as Burkina Faso, where communities face a devastating decade-long humanitarian crisis driven by armed violence; in Rwanda, the site of one of the most rapid and brutal genocides of the modern era; and in Burundi and Somalia, where societies continue to rebuild after years of civil war. Across these experiences, healing minds has proven essential to sustaining peace and enabling societies to recover and thrive.

MHPSS as Primary Aid in Emergencies

There is no doubt about the necessity of providing MHPSS services to people affected by conflict — including refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). Two main reasons make MHPSS an essential component of humanitarian aid during emergencies.

First, extensive research has documented the range of mental health conditions that affect people living in conflict situations. A recent Interpeace study conducted in Burkina Faso’s Cascades region —which hosts large numbers of displaced people— found high levels of trauma, grief, fear, anxiety, guilt, shame, hopelessness, sleep disorders, aggressivity, and alcohol use disorder, among others, all of which impair daily functioning. For instance, 6% of the study population reported experiencing suicidal ideation, stating that life had no meaning to them.

These findings corroborate the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2019) estimates published in The Lancet, which indicate that one in five people in conflict settings lives with some form of mental disorder, and nearly one in ten suffers from a moderate or severe condition.

Second, people with severe mental disorders face elevated protection risks. They may experience abandonment, homelessness, sexual or domestic abuse, social stigma, or isolation. Providing psychosocial support helps them not only cope with their conditions but also retain their dignity.

“Many of us here suffer from several illnesses at once. I have ulcers, I lack sleep, my heart beats faster all the time, I live in constant fear, my thoughts torment me,” shared one displaced person in Burkina Faso’s Cascades region. Another added: “We chose not to talk about it, but many of us have lost the taste for life and hope for the future.”

These conditions often stem from traumatic experiences such as losing loved ones or property and witnessing killings. Armed groups continue to abduct men and boys, leaving behind widows and orphans. While prevalence rates vary, mental health disorders also affect host communities, where pressure on resources and limited job opportunities can fuel mistrust and tension between hosts and displaced populations.

Because access to professional mental health care is limited, many people in the Cascades region turn to religion or traditional healers seeking solace. Although the government has identified MHPSS as a priority in its National Plan for Stabilisation and Development, the scale of needs far exceeds available capacity due to insufficient infrastructure, a shortage of professionals, and insecurity in areas controlled by armed groups.

Interpeace has provided group-based psychosocial interventions for displaced persons and host communities, helping individuals develop coping skills, stimulate healing, and enhance resilience. These interventions were paired with collaborative livelihood initiatives to improve socio-economic stability.

The psychosocial support interventions improved participants’ functionality and coping capacity. They strengthened people’s ability to think clearly, make decisions, and care for themselves and others. They also helped restore a sense of hope and control, enabling individuals to engage more effectively with humanitarian assistance, improve their livelihoods, and support one another.

Restoring Broken Minds, Rebuilding Trust, and Anchoring Peace

When conflicts end, the struggle continues —to rebuild infrastructure, restore livelihoods, and repair the social fabric. MHPSS remains crucial in this process, as unhealed trauma can undermine both individual recovery and collective development.

The Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, more than three decades ago, left profound mental health consequences, including widespread post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, fear and panic disorder. The 2018 Rwanda Mental Health Survey by the Rwanda Biomedical Centre (RBC) found the prevalence of mental disorders to be 20.49% —significantly above the global average and even higher among genocide survivors.

In response, the Government of Rwanda and its partners have implemented nationwide healing initiatives — including counselling, community dialogue, and restorative justice support to address unhealed trauma. Interpeace, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health (through RBC) and the Ministry of National Unity and Civic Engagement (MINUBUMWE), has adopted a holistic approach that provides safe spaces to address mental health issues, strengthen resilience, and foster reconciliation and social cohesion.

Safe spaces have been established within communities, health facilities, and correctional centres to decentralise MHPSS services and strengthen the capacity of professionals across the country.

The impact of these interventions has demonstrated that MHPSS should not be considered an optional add-on, but rather a continuum that bridges humanitarian relief, development, and long-term peacebuilding.

In Somalia, a country still rebuilding after decades of conflict, integrating MHPSS into Interpeace’s Miisaan Programme has helped raise awareness of the holistic approach needed to meaningfully advance transitional justice, rebuild trust, and strengthen social cohesion.

The prolonged conflict has severely affected the mental well-being of many Somalis. WHO estimates that in Somalia the prevalence of mental health illness is much higher than global estimates with one in every three people affected by mental illness, conditions which hinder their full participation in reconciliation and state-building efforts. Yet mental well-being remains an overlooked aspect of these processes.

To advance mental well-being in policy agendas, the Miisaan programme integrated awareness raising strategies that included community dialogues, MHPSS sessions, roundtable discussions with policy makers, media awareness campaigns, and training workshops for traditional leaders and mediators in psychosocial support. Mental health practitioners and volunteers also received Basic Psychosocial Support training, enabling them to advocate for mental health in reconciliation processes, support survivors of gender-based violence, and other vulnerable groups, especially those affected by community conflicts.

The Miisaan programme also successfully advocated for the inclusion of a MHPSS component within Somalia’s National Reconciliation Framework (NRF), which outlines policy actions that the Federal Government of Somalia (FGS) will implement with regards to mental health in transitional justice.

Through this initiative, MHPSS has contributed to effective transitional justice in Somalia by addressing trauma, anxiety, and depression, thus laying the foundation for genuine forgiveness, reconciliation, and the prevention of future violence.

In Burundi, years of civil war and cycles of violence have left deep psychological wounds and fractured relationships in Burundi’s social fabric, exacerbated by social and economic hardships. Many people suffer from undiagnosed mental health disorders, often attributing their symptoms to witchcraft — a belief that prevents them from seeking professional care.

Through the Synergies for Peace III initiative, Interpeace and its partners launched a psychoeducation campaign across communities and schools, featuring community dialogues, workshops with political actors and decision-makers, radio broadcasts, and participatory theatre. The campaign also included the production of educational content distributed through social media and intergenerational dialogues to facilitate an open dialogue across generations.

An evaluation found that 80% of participants said the campaign helped them understand the connection between their mental health symptoms and past traumatic events. It encouraged self-awareness, empathy, and collective healing, sparking honest dialogue and a reconciliation process.

Individual testimonies during community and intergenerational dialogues also revealed ongoing challenges to social cohesion, from interethnic mistrust to economic hardship linked to unaddressed trauma. “Through testimonies during the intergenerational dialogues, I realised that because of past conflicts, some families still refuse inter-ethnic marriages,” noted a local authority.

In their joint policy paper, the Synergies for Peace consortium recommended that the Government of Burundi integrate trauma healing into peace and development programmes, a step that could accelerate progress toward the country’s Vision 2040–2060 and National Development Plan (2018–2027).

The experiences above show that MHPSS is both lifesaving and life-building. Addressing mental health only during emergencies is like treating a wound without tending to the scar. Likewise, focusing solely on post-conflict trauma overlooks the immediate and long-term needs of affected communities. Integrating MHPSS into all stages, from preparedness to response, recovery, and promoting peace-responsive leadership, is crucial for achieving sustainable peace, development, and the protection of human dignity.

 

Intergenerational Dialogue: A Critical Approach to Foster Reconciliation and Resilience

Episodes of violent conflict and political instability have serious consequences for the social fabric of communities, often fuelling generational mistrust and jeopardising social cohesion and harmony. Lasting peace is unlikely to be achieved if peacebuilding initiatives fail to address generational gaps and foster understanding and collaboration among community members of different age groups. Intergenerational dialogue has been central to Interpeace’s approach to addressing the legacies of conflict, rebuilding trust, and fostering a shared vision for a peaceful and sustainable future. In Sub-Saharan African countries such as Rwanda, Burundi, and Somalia, which continue to experience the consequences of past violence, including genocide, Interpeace has collaborated with organisations to establish intergenerational dialogue as a means of addressing trauma and fostering reconciliation and resilience.

Trauma Healing to Enhance Family and Community Resilience in Rwanda

Intergenerational transmission of trauma remains a major challenge in Rwanda, over three decades after the Genocide against the Tutsi. Clinical studies have shown high levels of genocide-related legacies transmitted from older generations to younger people, particularly those born after the genocide.

On the one hand, studies conducted by Interpeace (2020 & 2023) have revealed that genocide survivor parents transmit unhealed psychological wounds, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anger, depression, and anxiety to younger generations. These conditions impair parenting capacity and are compounded by an inability to discuss traumatic experiences openly, leading to fractured family relationships. On the other hand, families who were involved in the genocide often shy away from discussing past actions with their children, causing the latter to develop resentment or even hatred towards their parents.

The ongoing transmission of genocide legacies has exposed some youth to high-risk behaviours, which can pose a setback to their engagement in socioeconomic development and limit both family and community resilience.

Interpeace has been working with government and other partners to enhance individual, family, and community resilience through a group-based psychosocial intervention known as Multifamily Therapy, or Multifamily Healing Spaces, which advances intergenerational dialogue. This approach has been implemented to address intergenerational trauma and improve family communication and cohesion. The Multifamily Healing Spaces created within the community bring together parents from genocide survivors' and perpetrators’ families, as well as other Rwandans and their descendants, to engage in open dialogue about invisible wounds and historical legacies. Both parents and children are equipped with socio-emotional skills to manage their emotions, and parents are trained in positive parenting practices.

The healing spaces have demonstrated considerable positive effects across various aspects of family dynamics: from improving communication and conflict resolution to enhancing gender equality, parenting practices, and social cohesion. Families have become more open and collaborative when facing challenges.  One parent remarked, “We’ve learned to talk through our issues calmly without escalating to arguments. This has enabled us to connect on a deeper level.” Another shared, “Before, we would yell at each other, but now we prioritise active listening over confrontation.”

With regard to breaking the silence around trauma and historical events, many parents now feel more comfortable discussing sensitive topics with their children. A young participant from Rwanda’s Northern Province shared: “Before attending the spaces, my mother did not want us to call her mom, especially during the genocide commemoration period. She asked us to use a nickname because the word ‘mom’ reminded her of her own mother, who was killed during the genocide while she was still young. It would make her angry, sad, or traumatised each time she heard it.”

Through structured intergenerational dialogues, parents became more capable of explaining historical experiences objectively and meaningfully. At the same time, young people gained the confidence to express their thoughts on how these events shaped their lives. These dialogues helped families to improve communication barriers that had previously hindered productive discussions, allowing for more meaningful engagement on family and community issues.

In a Rwandan society where strong family bonds still shape everyday life, intergenerational dialogues have proven powerful in breaking long-standing barriers of invisible wounds, mistrust, bias, and fear. These conversations are helping to rebuild social ties damaged by past conflicts and the legacy of genocide.

Healing Together: The Power of Intergeneration Dialogue in Burundi's Reconciliation and Resilience Efforts

Burundi continues to experience the consequences of multiple past cycles of violence and political instability, which were often marked by inter-ethnic massacres. This situation is exacerbated by ongoing social and economic challenges in a country struggling to rebuild its economy and social fabric. The past conflicts and current challenges have eroded trust among community members, not only across ethnic groups but also across generational lines. Young people from various ethnic groups find it difficult to trust one another due to ethnic legacies and socioeconomic disparities, and they also struggle to trust their elders because of their perceived involvement in a tragic past. The lack of meaningful inclusion of young people in decision-making processes, particularly in healing and reconciliation as well as livelihood initiatives, exacerbates the situation. This undermines family dynamics and social cohesion, perpetuating intergenerational trauma and potentially inciting hatred among younger generations.

Through its complementary initiatives, Synergies for Peace III and Dukire Twubake, Interpeace has leveraged intergenerational dialogues to foster healing, understanding, and community rebuilding. These initiatives utilised intergenerational dialogues as a pathway to enhancing social cohesion and economic development.

The dialogues followed a community psychotherapy process that allowed participants to share stories of hardship, address negative emotions, and find healing and solace, paving the way for open and constructive intergenerational dialogues. The dialogues created a conducive environment where participants of all ages could openly share their experiences, thereby challenging harmful stereotypes about other ethnic groups and nurturing empathy, trust, and appreciation for diverse perspectives.

By creating spaces for honest storytelling and attentive listening, this approach empowers Burundians to process their trauma, explore new avenues for progress, and gain deep insights into their own lives and those of others. The dialogues not only fostered reconciliation but also provided a therapeutic outlet for participants to strengthen emotional regulation and resilience.

Christian, a youth participant, explained, "The dialogue allows us to unburden ourselves, because it is by talking about this difficult past and sometimes by trivialising it that we can finally live in the present more easily." Another youth participant from Ruhororo commune added, "I am very impressed. I didn’t know that the commune of Ruhororo had so many people who risked their lives to save neighbours during the 1993 crisis. This is a powerful example for those of us who have not lived through these events. Personally, I am determined to campaign for peace and justice, even during times of conflict."

Targeting people from different ethnic backgrounds, the dialogues also have contributed to countering partisan interpretations of the painful past, leading to more cohesive communities.  

These efforts are complemented by additional activities. Using capacity- and confidence-building tools, women, youth, and trauma-affected communities are empowered to advocate for their needs, mobilise others, and lead initiatives that strengthen social and political cohesion and improve livelihoods. This approach also encourages open communication, self-reflection, and the collaborative exploration of alternative paths, fostering a sense of unity and collaboration.

Bridging the Past: A Tool to Foster Transitional Justice in Somalia

Somalia has made notable strides in peacebuilding and state-building in recent years. However, intercommunal relations, particularly in regional borderlands, remain fragile, strained by historical grievances, mistrust, and unresolved tensions linked to contested political power-sharing. These challenges are further exacerbated by the scarcity of resources and climate-induced displacement of the population, all of which deepen resource competition and contribute to recurring cycles of instability and violence.

These complex and interconnected setbacks imply an urgent need for initiatives that foster a collective understanding of the past and healing to prevent future violence, rebuild trust between communities and within institutions, as well as advance dialogue to address generational mistrust, which is essential for national unity, lasting peace and stability. 

Interpeace launched the Transitional Justice Programme, an initiative to strengthen social cohesion and inclusive governance through justice approaches grounded in Somali contextual realities. The programme contributes to redressing past violations and inequalities while supporting pathways for socio-economic transformation. Additionally, it facilitates a deeper understanding of the transitional justice process most suitable for Somalia by actively engaging young people, women, and traditional elders. Through this inclusive approach, the programme has addressed the gaps in intergenerational dialogue, helping to foster a shared understanding of what transitional justice means, why it matters in the context of Somalia, and how to move forward. 

Under this initiative, intergenerational dialogues have been organised in Galkayo, Beledweyn, and Dusamareeb, the regions of Somalia deeply affected by conflict and instability, further aggravated by climate change variability. These dialogues were crucial in addressing historical grievances and fostering sustainable peace. They created a platform for open discussions among different generations, traditional leaders, and local stakeholders. These sessions deepened the collective understanding of the complex dynamics behind past grievances and allowed community members to articulate the psychological toll of violence, including trauma, anxiety, and depression.

Transitional justice is unlikely to succeed if invisible wounds remain unaddressed. These dialogues reinforced the view that meaningful justice and reconciliation in Somalia require integrating Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS) into the transitional justice process.

Personal testimonials from elders, women, and youth highlighted the urgent need for comprehensive MHPSS programmes as an integral part of Somalia’s transitional justice system. One key recommendation was to develop training programmes for healthcare professionals and service providers operating in post-conflict regions, given their vital role in identifying and addressing community-wide mental health issues.

A female health practitioner noted: “We cannot achieve transitional justice if people still suffer from mental health issues. It limits their capacity to forgive each other and build resilience. Furthermore, in our efforts to provide care, my colleagues and I are not immune to secondary trauma caused by witnessing the deep suffering in our communities. That’s why training programmes are essential to help us navigate these complex challenges.”

Somalia's experience underscores the importance of fostering intergenerational understanding to drive positive peace. The Transitional Justice Programme has laid a critical foundation for a locally owned and meaningful reconciliation process by bridging generational gaps. It is strengthening the country’s potential to turn its painful history into a source of resilience and renewal, advancing a future built on justice, inclusion, and lasting peace.

Discussing History to Counter Manipulation and Divisionism

In fragile contexts affected by conflict, young people are especially vulnerable to manipulation and hate-fuelled ideologies due to limited knowledge of their country’s history. The spread of disinformation and misinformation is facilitated by increased internet misuse, especially toxic social media and forums that circulate hate speech and promote division.

In Rwanda, Burundi, and Somalia, intergenerational dialogues that bring together youth and respected elders from diverse sectors —public, private, academic, and civil society— help young people understand their communities’ and countries’ tragic pasts, including genocide and/or protracted armed conflict. These conversations equip them to actively build peaceful, resilient societies. In these countries, where memories of violence linger and legacies of trauma shape daily life, empowering families, communities, and youth to confront painful histories together, is not just mending broken bonds but laying the foundation for peaceful, inclusive societies where past divisions no longer determine the future and reconciliation, justice, and lasting peace prevail.

Building Peace through Climate-Resilient Resource Management in West Africa

In West Africa, cross-border conflicts have been intensified by ineffective natural resource management, compounded by climate change and other socio-economic pressures. In response to these conflict dynamics, Interpeace and its local partners have developed innovative programming that strengthens collaboration among cross-border communities in Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, and Burkina Faso. These efforts aim to enhance social cohesion, promote economic development, and build resilience against climate shocks.

The regions of Sikasso in Mali and Hauts-Bassins in Burkina Faso are pivotal to the stability and prosperity of the Sahel. With rich agricultural potential, these areas serve as vital trade hubs and are often referred to as “green lungs” of their respective countries. Their abundant natural resources support millions of livelihoods but have also become points of tension in the face of governance gaps and environmental stress.

Conflict Dynamics and Climate Pressures

Research conducted by Interpeace in 2021, funded by the PATRIP Foundation, revealed three major conflict dynamics in key cross-border areas, notably between Koloko (Burkina Faso) and Finkolo (Mali), as well as between communities in the Cascades region (Burkina Faso) and the Tchologo (Côte d'Ivoire).

First, competition over land ownership and usage have escalated since agriculture remains the main income-generating activity. Farmers expand their land beyond traditional boundaries, which increases tensions over access and cultivation rights.

"The first person to cultivate a piece of land cuts down their field to go beyond the old boundaries. Then the other one comes along, realises that where he was cultivating, the boundaries are no longer the same; they have been crossed by the other. This is what leads to many quarrels," explained a local farmer from Koloko, Burkina Faso.

Second, conflicts between farmers and herders have become more frequent. Expanding farmland has reduced available grazing lands, prompting violent clashes with transhumant herders, nomadic pastoralists who seasonally migrate in search of pasture.

Third, women and youth’s exclusion from conflict management processes has limited community resilience. Despite their critical role in resource use and management, women and young people are often marginalised in decision-making structures in culturally male-dominated societies.

Climate variability, land degradation, and unsustainable land use practices aggravated by climate change – have increased competition for diminishing resources. Marked by shorter rainy seasons, scarce rainfall, frequent natural disasters, deforestation, and desertification, climate change has effectively worsened pre-existing conflict dynamics. Increased migration by transhumant herders into already fragile areas has heightened tensions, complicating agricultural planning and livestock management. The resulting pressures have triggered recurrent intra- and inter-community conflicts.

To help build lasting peace in these communities, Interpeace has implemented a three-pronged strategy: promoting participatory dialogue, supporting alternative livelihoods and investing in community infrastructure that promotes coexistence.

 Strengthening Social Cohesion Through Community Dialogue

Participatory dialogue was carried out through three main approaches. In the first project phase, Interpeace conducted community consultations in the form of inter-community and intra-community dialogues. This process created a platform to raise awareness about preventing conflicts related to natural resource exploitation.

Cross-border commissions were established, comprising community members, local authorities, and technical agents. These commissions not only serve as frameworks for inter-community integration but also function as tools for conflict prevention and management. They also serve as complaint mechanisms and facilitate peaceful resolution of conflicts.

Interpeace, in collaboration with implementing partners — Association SOS Enfants and Association Esther Vision in Burkina Faso, and Action pour le Développement de l'Initiative Locale (ADILO) in Mali — carried out awareness-raising activities through conferences and educational talks. Four civil-military dialogue frameworks were established; alongside educational talks, cross-border fairs, and community theatre performances aimed at promoting coexistence in the border areas.

These forums focused on natural resource management along the border strip. The fairs, held in both regions, attracted over four thousand participants, including community leaders, as well as administrative and political authorities. They featured traditional music, dance, and local food.

According to participants, the fairs provided an opportunity to rediscover shared values between cross-border communities.

"Today, we realise the importance of collective effort. We cannot achieve peace without working together. We understand each other better, and we continue to work together. Thanks to the programme interventions in our communities, we prioritise negotiation over confrontation and maintain open discussions," noted Zana Alassane, a member of the Zanapledougou community in Côte d'Ivoire.

The establishment of a culture of dialogue between Malian, Burkinabé, and Ivorian communities has reunited populations who, due to past tensions, had ceased socialising or participating in joint events.  

A significant decrease in tensions linked to natural resource exploitation has been reported in the past two years. Local incident reports compiling data from cross-border commissions and local authorities revealed only minor incidents in 2024, with no major conflicts over natural resources reported.

"The programme has opened our eyes. Today we know how to behave, and, above all, we are aware of the importance of working together to solve our problems," said Coulibaly Blama, a youth leader in Ouarga community, Côte d'Ivoire.

 Building Better Livelihoods to Reduce Pressure on Natural Resources

The programme also introduced alternative livelihood activities by supporting community members, particularly vulnerable youth and women, in developing environmentally friendly, climate-resilient, income-generating initiatives. This approach aimed to empower these vulnerable community members, enhance their contributions to social cohesion, and reduce dependence on the exploitation of natural resources. The activities included improved seed farming, small livestock breeding, and local product processing. Community members also learned innovative agricultural techniques that increase productivity without requiring vast land or causing land degradation. These included sedentary breeding of small ruminants, a sustainable practice that eliminates the need for transhumance tracks during the rainy season; production of soumbala (fermented locust beans), which focuses on processing local products instead of exploiting natural resources; and beekeeping, which has helped reduce reliance on traditional land exploitation as the sole income source. These practices have diversified livelihoods while promoting environmental sustainability and social cohesion.

Community-based joint processing factories, a women's poultry breeding centre, and storage warehouses have been established to foster collaboration and improve socio-economic conditions. To sustain these initiatives, community members have been trained in managing income-generating activities and financial literacy.

“Poor livelihoods caused by climate change have also been a source of conflict in our communities. This programme helped us create income-generating activities. Thanks to the training I received in the production and sale of Soumbala, I have improved my product and can meet my family’s needs. I no longer have time for quarrels with my neighbours, as I am busy with my business,” said Odette Sanou.

Investing in Shared Community Infrastructure

Complementing livelihood support, the programme has invested in essential infrastructure, such as modern community markets, renovating water wells, and dams as well as health centres, linking income-generating activities and offering joint resource sites. Drinking water supply systems have also been built to provide potable water and help reduce conflicts over water resources.

These initiatives have brought communities closer together and reduced both intra- and inter-community tensions. The infrastructure not only meets the needs of the population but also strengthens social cohesion and grassroots socio-economic development.

The experiences of Sikasso, Hauts-Bassins, and Tchologo show that strengthening participatory natural resource governance, promoting climate-resilient livelihoods, and investing in conflict-sensitive infrastructure are vital pathways to peace in fragile regions.

As climate change continues to amplify risks, there is an urgent need to scale up these approaches, support local leadership, and embed collaborative frameworks that bridge communities and authorities. Building resilience to climate stresses is not just an environmental imperative but a peacebuilding priority for West Africa and beyond.

 

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